Third Battle of Kharkov in World War II

Third Battle of Kharkov in World War II The Third Battle of Kharkov was fought between Feb. 19 and March 15, 1943, during World War II. As the  Battle of Stalingrad  was concluding in early February 1943, Soviet forces launched Operation Star. Conducted by Colonel General Filipp Golikovs Voronezh Front, the goals of the operation were the capture of Kursk and Kharkov. Spearheaded by four tank corps under Lieutenant-General Markian Popov, the Soviet offensive initially met with success and drove back German forces. On Feb. 16, Soviet troops liberated Kharkov. Angered by the loss of the city, Adolf Hitler flew to the front to assess the situation and meet with the commander of Army Group South, Field Marshal Erich von Manstein. Though he desired an immediate counterattack to re-take Kharkov, Hitler ceded control to von Manstein when Soviet troops neared Army Group Souths headquarters. Unwilling to launch a direct assault against the Soviets, the German commander planned a counterstroke against the Soviet flank once they became overextended. For the coming battle, he intended to isolate and destroy the Soviet spearheads before mounting a campaign to re-take Kharkov. This done, Army Group South would coordinate with Army Group Center to the north in re-taking Kursk. Commanders Soviet Union Colonel General Konstantin RokossovskyColonel General Nickolay VatutinColonel General Filipp Golikov Germany Field Marshal Erich von MansteinGeneral Paul HausserGeneral Eberhard von MackensenGeneral Hermann Hoth The Battle Begins Commencing operations on February 19, von Manstein directed General Paul Haussers SS Panzer Corps to strike south as a screening force for a larger assault by General Hermann Hoths Fourth Panzer Army. Hoths command and General Eberhard von Mackensens First Panzer Army were ordered to attack into the overextended flank of the Soviet 6th and 1st Guards Armies. Meeting with success, the early days of the offensive saw German troops breakthrough and sever Soviet supply lines. On February 24, von Mackensens men succeeded in surrounding a large part of Popovs Mobile Group. German troops also succeeded in surrounding a large portion of the Soviet 6th Army. Responding to the crisis, the Soviet high command (Stavka) began directing reinforcements to the area. Also, on February 25, Colonel General Konstantin Rokossovsky launched a major offensive with his Central Front against the junction of Army Groups South and Center. Though his men had some success on the flanks, going in the center of the advance was slow. As the fighting progressed, the southern flank was halted by the Germans while the northern flank began to overextend itself. With the Germans exerting heavy pressure on Colonel General Nikolai F. Vatutins Southwestern Front, Stavka transferred 3th Tank Army to his command. Attacking the Germans on March 3, this force took heavy losses from enemy air attacks. In the resulting fighting, its 15th Tank Corps was encircled while its 12th Tank Corps was compelled to retreat north. The German successes early in the battle opened a large gap in the Soviet lines through which von Manstein pushed his offensive against Kharkov. By March 5, elements of Fourth Panzer Army were within 10 miles of the city. Striking at Kharkov Though concerned about the approaching spring thaw, von Manstein pushed toward Kharkov. Rather than advance to the east of the city, he ordered his men to move to the west then north to encircle it. On March 8, SS Panzer Corps completed its drive north, splitting the Soviet 69th and 40th Armies before turning east the next day. In place on March 10, Hausser received orders from Hoth to take the city as soon as possible. Though von Manstein and Hoth wished him to continue the encirclement, Hausser directly attacked Kharkov from the north and west on March 11. Pressing into northern Kharkov, the Leibstandarte SS Panzer Division met heavy resistance and only gained a foothold in the city with the aid of air support. The Das Reich SS Panzer Division attacked into the western side of the city the same day. Stopped by a deep anti-tank ditch, they breached it that night and pushed on to the Kharkov train station. Late that night, Hoth finally succeeded in making Hausser comply with his orders and this division disengaged and moved to blocking positions east of the city. On March 12, Leibstandarte division renewed its attack south. Over the next two days, it endured brutal urban fighting as German troops cleared the city house-by-house. By the night of March 13/14, German troops controlled two-thirds of Kharkov. Attacking again the next, they secured the remainder of the city. Though the battle largely concluded on March 14, some fighting continued on the 15th and 16th as German forces expelled Soviet defenders from a factory complex in the south. The Aftermath of the Third Battle of Kharkov Dubbed the Donets Campaign by the Germans, the Third Battle of Kharkov saw them shatter fifty-two Soviet divisions while inflicting approximately 45,300 killed/missing and 41,200 wounded. Pushing out from the Kharkov, von Mansteins forces drove northeast and secured Belgorod on March 18. With his men exhausted and the weather turning against him, von Manstein was compelled to call a halt to offensive operations. As a result, he was unable to press on to Kursk as he had originally intended. The German victory at the Third Battle of Kharkov set the stage for the massive Battle of Kursk that summer. Sources World War II Database: Third Battle of KharkovTimelines: Third Battle of KharkovHistory of War: Third Battle of Kharkov

Free Essays on The Witches Children

In the summer of 1692, nineteen men and women were hanged after having been convicted of witchcraft. The hysteria began the previous winter and was over by early autumn of 1692. To pass the cold winter days of 1692, several girls began meeting at Rev. Parris’ home. Tituba, the Parris’ slave from Barbados, entertained the girls with her stories of witchcraft and demons. Tituba also told the girls’ fortunes. Soon, Rev. Parris’ daughter, Betty, and her cousin, Abigail Williams, became frightened by the stories and fortunes, and they began to act strangely. They had terrible fits, darting around the house, screaming and crying and writhing as if they were in pain. Rev. Parris called Salem Village’s doctor, Willam Griggs because he thought the girls’ behavior might be an illness. The doctor failed to find any medical cause for their fits, so he concluded that the girls must be bewitched. During that time period, most people believed one could make an agreement with the devil in exchange for evil powers. This was considered a great sin, and the girls didn’t speak out immediately. At the end of February, they began to accuse Tituba and other women in Salem Village of conspiring with the devil and practicing witchcraft. Other girls in the village, including Ann Putnam, Elizabeth Hubbard, Susannah Sheldon, and Mary Warren, began to have similar fits, and they joined in the accusations. Soon, many villagers were arrested and jailed on charges of witchcraft. Trials for the accused began in March. In order to receive a lesser sentence, some of the accused confessed their guilt and also spoke out against others. Because there were so many accused witches in jail, the governor set up a new court, the â€Å"court of oyer and terminer," specifically for the witchcraft cases. In the cases against the accused, â€Å"spectral evidence† (testimony that one was afflicted by someone’s specter, or ghost) was admitted, as wer... Free Essays on The Witches Children Free Essays on The Witches Children In the summer of 1692, nineteen men and women were hanged after having been convicted of witchcraft. The hysteria began the previous winter and was over by early autumn of 1692. To pass the cold winter days of 1692, several girls began meeting at Rev. Parris’ home. Tituba, the Parris’ slave from Barbados, entertained the girls with her stories of witchcraft and demons. Tituba also told the girls’ fortunes. Soon, Rev. Parris’ daughter, Betty, and her cousin, Abigail Williams, became frightened by the stories and fortunes, and they began to act strangely. They had terrible fits, darting around the house, screaming and crying and writhing as if they were in pain. Rev. Parris called Salem Village’s doctor, Willam Griggs because he thought the girls’ behavior might be an illness. The doctor failed to find any medical cause for their fits, so he concluded that the girls must be bewitched. During that time period, most people believed one could make an agreement with the devil in exchange for evil powers. This was considered a great sin, and the girls didn’t speak out immediately. At the end of February, they began to accuse Tituba and other women in Salem Village of conspiring with the devil and practicing witchcraft. Other girls in the village, including Ann Putnam, Elizabeth Hubbard, Susannah Sheldon, and Mary Warren, began to have similar fits, and they joined in the accusations. Soon, many villagers were arrested and jailed on charges of witchcraft. Trials for the accused began in March. In order to receive a lesser sentence, some of the accused confessed their guilt and also spoke out against others. Because there were so many accused witches in jail, the governor set up a new court, the â€Å"court of oyer and terminer," specifically for the witchcraft cases. In the cases against the accused, â€Å"spectral evidence† (testimony that one was afflicted by someone’s specter, or ghost) was admitted, as wer...

Supreme Court Rulings Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Supreme Court Rulings - Essay Example Perhaps the most important aspect of this case is that the decision of the court to convict Johnson was against his right to symbolic speech, and was in the interest of ‘keeping the peace’ and retaining the flag as a symbol of unity. The fact that Johnson was acting in the interest of freedom of speech, using the desecration of the flag to illustrate his perspective, was considered by some (but by no means all; the final decision by the Supreme Court was 5-4 in Johnson’s favor) to be against the First Amendment. The First Amendment was brought into question here because it suggests that any individual in the United States has the freedom of speech, but the issue here is that flag-burning is not a vocal act but a physical one. It was questionable for some whether Johnson’s act should have been protected by the First Amendment or not (). The decision of the Supreme Court led to the invalidation of laws prohibiting the burning of the flag in 48 out of the 50 s tates. The majority evidently found that flag-burning was inappropriate in many cases but not a legal issue, as Johnson would have been free to burn the flag in private. Additionally, flag-burning was not found to be a unique act, in that it should not be separated from the rulings of the First Amendment simply because it is not a vocal act; it is a act symbolic of freedom of speech. Those who were against the choice felt, however, that Johnson was being inappropriate, and that the flag is a sacred or revered object that needs to be protected. Many also felt that as flag-burning had the potential to cause outrage, it was in the interest of peace to ensure that punishment was given. The importance of this case is that it shows that freedom of speech is alive within the United States, despite the fact that this aspect of the First Amendment seems to protect acts that many Americans find unsavory. It is difficult to say which side was in the right here, as is evidenced by how close the ruling of the Supreme Court is. It seems sensible to protect the flag as it is an emblem of the United States, but freedom of speech is another sacred emblem. It seems necessary to uphold the values of both, although perhaps freedom is more valuable than the simple imagery of the flag. Lee v Weisman Lee v Weisman is one of the most important cases in U.S. history because it was the first Supreme Court case regarding the freedom of religion and prayer in schools. Weisman, the father of a child graduating from Nathan Bishop Middle School, sought a restraining order on a rabbi who was due to speak at his daughter’s graduation ceremony. This was refused, and the parents decided to attend the ceremony, despite the fact that it was voluntary. After the ceremony, the family continued to seek litigation, and the vote was decided 5-4 in the Weisman’s favor. The main reason for this decision is that the constitution forbids all types of coerced prayer (not just forced), despite the fact that this prayer was written to be nonsectarian and inclusive. The fact that the Weisman family had a choice in whether to attend the graduation ceremony was also not found to be a suitable defense, because it is such an important occasion that, despite the fact the choice was there, no real choice was offered. The thought of the opposition was that the prayer was ensured to illustrate the

To what extent does the internet represent a more democratic medium of Essay

To what extent does the internet represent a more democratic medium of information - Essay Example The concept of democratic media is also in contrast to state-run operations in which the media embodies the value system of the state itself. As such, democratic media can be highlighted by its structure and roles. With regard to structure, democratic media is essentially organized and overseen by ordinary citizens or their grassroots organizations; in terms of functions, democratic media, as a matter of priority, pursue serving the informational, cultural, and other communication needs of members of the public from which the media constitute or represent (Gaur 2006, p.6). Majority of the world media, today, can be regarded as embroiled in a hyper-commercialized agitation. In most countries, fewer than ten transnational media conglomerates control much of the media with almost every aspect of media culture under commercial exploitation right from sports, education, and arts. For some, this trend of concentration of media power and the resultant commercialization of public discourse s pells a disaster. An informed and active citizenry relies on the media in exercising its public service role and popular government need popular information, or ways of attaining it to be considered democratic (Bennett 2007, p.22). The case for media rests on two broad propositions: first, media play critical roles in social, political, economic, and cultural functions within contemporary democracies. In such societies, media can be regarded as the principal source of political information and admittance to public debate, and the platform to an informed, participating, self-governing citizenry (Gaur 2006, p.7). Democracy necessitates a media system that avails the masses with a wide range of opinion and analysis and debate on critical issues, mirrors the diversity of citizens, and fosters public accountability on the premise of powers-that-be and the powers-that-want-be (Bennett 2007, p.24). Second, media structuring, as exemplified by patters of ownership, subsidy, management, and regulations, are a critical determinant of media content. Given the non-competitive nature of media markets, the assertion that the media in contemporary society â€Å"gives people what they want† is unconvincing, to the exception of one media-the internet. Most media firms possess enough market power to dictate the content that can be perceived as most profitable to them (Cohen 2005, p.3). An easy route to this end (profitability) features increasing commercialism facilitated by a large number on ads, enhanced influence by advertisers over the non-advertising content, programming that yields to merchandising, and all forms of cross promotions with non-media forms. For any media to be considered democratic, it must wean itself the negativities associated with media ownership, regulation, management, and subsidy (Hoggart 2004, p.2). As such, the media system must eliminate the enormous power held by selected corporations and advertisers that dictate the media culture. The rece nt success witnessed by the commercial media can be attributed to a number of factors: commercial media operate at all geographical levels as highlighted by the Intra and inter-corporate connections exchange content. Commercial media all collectively and individually lobby to bring strategic influence to bear on

Leadership Behavior and Conflict Management in Small Groups Essay Example for Free

Leadership Behavior and Conflict Management in Small Groups Essay Small groups of people with common interests often come together to exchange information, collaborate and cooperate in the pursuit of a shared goal. These members have the time and space to meet and share ideas through interaction and participation. When such groups face tough and insurmountable problems it helps to have a visionary leader to help them cooperate and work together as a team (Forsyth, 2006). The study of small groups helps us to understand basic human behavior and how leaders transform groups and resolve conflicts (Hare, 1965). According to Forsyth, Donelson â€Å"Leadership is the process by which an individual guides others in their pursuits, often by organizing, directing, coordinating, supporting and motivating their efforts†. The process of leadership has evolved basically from the need to be organized. We observe similar qualities in the flock of birds that fly across the sky and among the herd of elephants deep in the jungles. But with humans, leadership processes have become as varied and complex as the many research studies that have been conducted. The leadership process is reciprocal, when it is mutually influences the leader and the follower, transactional when both the leaders and followers work together for common goals, transformational when leaders are able to inspire their followers into doing their best, cooperative when members select their leader voluntarily, adaptive when members are motivated to achieving group goals, task oriented when the leader focuses all the activities of the followers towards the achievement of group goals and relationship oriented when the focus is on the interpersonal relationship between group members. (Forsyth, 2006). While leadership processes are varied, the qualities found in leaders are also equally diverse. Though inborn personality traits are helpful in small group settings like being sociable, outgoing and expressive most leadership traits are acquired (Barrick Mount 1991). Normally leaders tend to be more intelligent than their followers in small groups. But most groups find it difficult to handle leaders with very high intellectual abilities (C. A. Gibb, 1969). On the other hand it is very helpful if a leader is endowed with emotional intelligence and the ability to be flexible to suit the demands of a particular situation (Kenny Zaccaro, 1983). Research studies have also shown that followers place undue importance to leaders who speak a lot more than necessary, as compared to leaders who are men of few words (Sorrentino Boutillier, 1975). The intriguing phenomenon of effective leadership has given rise to varying theories. Each of them has their related leadership training program as well. According to Fiedler’s Contingency Theory, a leader’s effectiveness depends on the way he relates to hi followers and in his ability to control situations. Here he specified three factors that influenced the leader’s control; the cohesiveness of the group, the concentration of power in the hands of the leader and whether group goals were structured or not. Using the Least Preferred Worker Scale (LPC), he rated people who were relationship oriented high and those who were task oriented low on the LPC score. The Octants based on this show that the task oriented leaders are effective when situations are highly favorable and unfavorable and relationship oriented leaders are effective in moderate situations (Forsyth, 2006). Fiedler has taken into consideration the good and the bad leader-member relations, the structured and unstructured goals. But groups goals are sometimes partly structured, leaders have average power and there exists fair leader- member relations. This middle range seems more possible and plausible while considering small group situations. In Robert Blake and Jane Mouton’s The Leadership Grid the focus, is again on task and relationship orientation, and they have come up with five different styles of leadership. In the ‘apathetic’ approach the leader has no interest in either achieving goals or improving group relations. The ‘country club’ approach as the name suggests adopts a friendly working atmosphere. While the ‘middle road approach’ has a leader who balances the work done and maintains the morale of the people; the ‘task master’ gets the work done and is less concerned about the feelings of the group members. The ‘team work approach’, is considered the best as its members are committed to their goal and share a feeling of mutual trust and respect (Forsyth, 2006). The style of the leadership depends on the maturity of the group members according to the Situational Leadership Theory given by Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard. They emphasize that an effective leader should display four styles of leadership. An effective leader should ‘direct’ the group members when they are inexperienced, ‘coach’ them as their competence level increases, offer ‘support’ when they are moderately mature and ‘delegate’ tasks when they are committed (Forsyth, 2006). Though this approach doesn’t talk about task and relationship orientation it is feasible in small groups. The Leader Member Exchange (LMX) approach is based on how members respond to their leaders. If they value their leader there is a heightened level of efficiency, commitment and loyalty and they become a part of the privileged inner group. The others who do not respond positively form the outer group and continue to do their work. The key to the leader’s effectiveness depends on his capacity to bring all his followers within the inner group (Forsyth, 2006). The Lewin-Lippitt-White study focused on the control the leader had over his group and their level of participation. Under laboratory conditions they studied the effect of shared and unshared power in the context of small groups. Groups with an authoritarian leader reflected greater dependence and showed signs of more conflict, whereas under a democratic leader group members learnt to be more self reliant. The laissez-faire group was added later with a leader who rarely interfered and followers who learnt to make their own decisions. This group wasn’t as cohesive as the democratic style that emerged the best. The group with a democratic leader had the highest group oriented suggestions, more friendly behavior and less critical discontent (Forsyth, 2006). Since power was shared participants felt empowered to make meaningful decisions towards the achievement of a shared goal. This study in fact supports the concept of collective leadership as well. Craig L Pearce Jay Conger (2003) studied the effectiveness of ‘shared leadership’ when the group was removed from a traditional organizational approach. They found that groups with collective leadership outperformed the leader oriented groups. They were also the most effective in small group situations. Bernard Bass (1997) presented the Theory of Transformational Leadership based on the charisma of the leader to transform his followers. Under the influence of an inspirational leader, group members unite to show increased efficiency in pursuing collective goals. A transformational leader tends to questions old beliefs and leads his followers along paths that are not chartered, setting new trends (Forsyth, 2006). With more emphasis placed on interpersonal relations these leaders are effective in both small and large groups. Being eloquent, a charismatic leader initiates dialogues on issues where differences of opinion arise. Such open minded brain storming sessions would bring about several solutions and the group might end up accepting a hybrid goal where the best ideas have been incorporated. This builds cohesiveness and improves cooperation within the group (Potter, 1996). The charismatic leaders have a reputation of integrity and their followers show a tendency to emulate them. (Eagly, Johannesen- Schmidt Van Engen, 2003). But charismatic leaders are rare and even these exceptional leaders can get things wrong. Something that seems morally and ethically right for one person may not be so for another. Keeley, 1998). Another question that has fascinated researchers is whether men and women show different leadership behavior and do gender differences influence the process of leadership. Though historical evidence supports the fact that women have been underrepresented in leadership roles, research studies show that gender does not influence the effectiveness of a leader with both sexes displaying a balanced task and relationship orientation (Forsyth, 2006). Both men and women who hold similar positional and resource power show similarities in leadership behavior (Kanter, 1997). Women leaders show a tendency to be more agreeable, open, fair, responsible and increasingly involved in conflict management, whereas men are inclined towards power, influence and skill orientation (Forsyth, Schenker, Leary McCown, 1985). Thus the sexes differ in the styles of leadership with women adopting transformational and participative approaches, while men are likely to exhibit authoritarian, laissez-faire and transactional styles (Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt Van Engen, 2003). Conflict management is a major challenge faced by leaders across the world. Conflict is a natural occurrence in competitive group situations. A disagreement over beliefs and actions can lead to a conflict if it is resisted. Through an interaction process analysis Robert Blake and his colleagues observed that group members spent one fifth of their time in making hostile comments. When task achievement became difficult, hostility increased and escalated into a conflict (Forsyth, 2006). The best method to manage conflict would be to have an open debate on the issue (Montana Charnov, 2000), instead of ignoring or brushing aside conflicts, an effective leader should confront it head on (Davies, Burke, Calbom Kindler, 1991). The current trend shows that leaders and followers are expected to be in contact 24/7 (Murphy Riggio). It has in turn given rise to virtual offices, having virtual teams working out of their homes in different parts of the globe. . This increased dependence in information technology has given way to e-leadership (Avolio, Kahai Dodge, 2000). In the future new leadership trends will be reinvented as business environments keep changing. Traditional power oriented organizations will give way to power sharing ones. Organizations will get decentralized, along with a cooperative use of resources (Forsyth, 2006). Competency then will depend on the leader’s vision of the future, intellectual capacity, strategic thinking, emotional strength and the ability to coordinate and develop human capital (Rivard, 2004). Together with team building and leadership, conflict resolution as a skill will have to be acquired by people interacting in small groups (Gregory Parry, 2006). It will help them to lead the world that’s growing flatter.

The American Dream in The Great Gatsby :: essays research papers

The American Dream is an idea and a myth that people struggle for but can never be achieved. It cannot be attained because it is an endless race for perfection and better than oneself. For some the dream might be to become impossibly wealthy, or become stronger and smarter than one can be. People pursue the American dream because they believe it has been accomplished before. We live in a society where perfection is ideal and flaws are covered up or hidden. Americans believe that everyone else is perfect because that is what they are shown, and they strive to copy that flawless image too. They are thought of in the same way however, and the All-American power struggle ensues, with each group being more jealous than the next.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  America is founded on the principle of liberty, the notion that everyone is free to say and write what they want, and that everyone is equal. Some people assume that since so much freedom is allowed, at least one person is exercising that freedom to its fullest. They work their whole lives to try to be like that person, but that person does not exist. They want to be as rich as him, as sophisticated as him, and as powerful as him. These people are called the wealthy. Karl Marx would describe them as â€Å"The Haves†. They differ morally with the majority of the population, but then again they vastly different from the people they perceive as having all the freedom to do what they want. The Great Gatsby illustrates the story these people, and how they are corrupted by the potential of seemingly limitless freedom. Jay Gatsby and Tom and Daisy Buchanan are the elite. They have it all, from huge sprawling mansions to private golf courses. They want it all, and more often than not, they get it all. Tom and Daisy are out for pleasure, but loner Jay Gatsby is looking for love after wasting his life for so many years.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tom and Daisy Buchanan are not modest people. They know they are rich and they flaunt it. They openly show off their wealth openly to Nick when he comes to visit. Money has taken over their lives and they know it. They are living the American Dream of money, power, and sophistication. Tom is described as a â€Å"hulking wad of muscle†, which could mean that the Buchanans is a deciption of the corrupted rich families with money and power.

Imagery in Romeo and Juliet Essay

Both commit suicide rather than be separated by their families’ feud. The play has survived for centuries because of not only its captivating storyline but also its stirring phraseology. Shakespeare infuses Romeo and Juliet with various types of imagery – for example, celestial, religious, avian, and light and dark references – that provide metaphoric meaning, influence the spectators’ (or readers’) moods, and foreshadow the lamentable end. Heavenly imagery illuminates the brilliance of Romeo and Juliet’s relationship in the play. For example, Romeo says Juliet is like the sun, and that her eyes are â€Å"two of the fairest stars in all the heaven†¦ her eye in heaven/Would through the airy region stream so bright/That birds would sing and think it were not night† (2. 2. 15-23). Juliet states that Romeo should be â€Å"cut†¦ out in little stars† (3. 2. 24), and that daylight is â€Å"some meteor that the sun exhaled† (3. 5. 13). Humans have long been in awe of bright, dazzling astronomical objects like the meteors, stars, and sun that the lovers mention. With frequent celestial imagery, Shakespeare shows how beautiful and out-of-this-world Romeo and Juliet’s love is. Spiritual language, while emphasizing the purity of Romeo and Juliet’s love, also foreshadows their tragic fate. Romeo’s first discussion with Juliet is about Christian pilgrimage that illustrates how divine, almost flawlessly sacred, his devotion to her is, like the pious connection between a worshipper and God. To him, her hand is a â€Å"holy shrine† and his lips are â€Å"two blushing pilgrims† (1. 5. 105-106). He calls her a â€Å"dear saint† (1. 5. 114) and a â€Å"bright angel†¦ winged messenger of heaven† (2. 2. 29-31). His â€Å"pilgrim speech,† in which he convinces Juliet to let him kiss her, is written in sonnet form. The sonnet is the typical form of love poetry, and Shakespeare makes Romeo’s Christian language even more lyrical and beautiful. Later, their affection edges into blasphemy when Juliet names Romeo the â€Å"god of my idolatry† (2. 2. 119). Romeo and Juliet was written by Shakespeare in England, in Victorian times. His audience would have belonged to the Anglican Church, and surely would have noticed that Juliet’s statement is irreverent. Though her adulation is touching, Juliet seems to be replacing God with Romeo, with passion supplanting faith. The audience would have thought that the lovers’ unfortunate suicides could have been influenced by heavenly retribution. The religious undertones throughout the play serve both to highlight Romeo and Juliet’s love, and to warn of the disastrous consequences. Avian imagery influences the atmosphere of scenarios in Romeo and Juliet. At the balcony scene, when the sweethearts exchange their vows of love, they employ descriptions of birds to express the simple cuteness of their fondness. O, for a falc’ner’s voice/To lure this tassel-gentle back again! † (2. 2. 169-170) sighs Juliet, to which Romeo responds, â€Å"My nyas† (2. 2. 179, in some editions). Juliet also wishes that Romeo were â€Å"no farther than a wanton’s bird,/That lets it hop a little from his hand†¦ And with a silken thread plucks it back again† (2. 2. 191-194). The birds they speak of, tamed falcons and pets, are benign, even loved; speaking of them makes their declarations of love prettier. After their marriage, when Romeo has killed Tybalt and has been exiled permanently from Verona, Juliet’s references to birds grows bleaker. She starts off by pleading with Romeo to stay; â€Å"Nightly she sings on yond pomegranate. /Believe me, love, it was the nightingale† (3. 5. 4-5). Her language is still reminiscent of mellifluous sweetness, as is the scene: they have just spent the night together, and Romeo is only now leaving. But as daylight, and danger, approaches, the euphonious nightingale transforms into the cacophonous lark â€Å"that sings so out of tune,/Straining harsh discords and unpleasing sharps†¦ she divideth us† (3. 5. 27-30). Her remark about how unpleasing the lark is mirrors the bitter situation that she and Romeo are in. After Lord Capulet demands that Juliet marry Paris, even after she has married Romeo, the Nurse says that â€Å"An eagle, madam,/Hath not so green, so quick, so fair an eye/As Paris hath† (3. 5. 232-234). Though she means to compliment Paris, Nurse creates a contrast between Romeo and Paris. Unlike the tamed falcons mentioned by Romeo and Juliet, eagles are wild, and quick and eager to kill; while Romeo and Juliet’s relationship is gentle and fond, Juliet’s view of Paris is not nearly as loving. Shakespeare invokes moods fitting to particular scenes through avian imagery. Light and dark imagery in Romeo and Juliet is not particularly metaphoric; light does not always stand for good, just as dark does not invariably represent evil. Rather, Shakespeare utilizes light and dark imagery to induce sharp contrasts. For example, Benvolio tells Romeo that, at the Capulet party, he â€Å"will make thee think thy swan a crow† (1. 2. 94), as though the difference between the white feathers of the swan and the black of the crow was like the distinctiveness between Rosaline and other beauties. â€Å"O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night/As a rich jewel in an Ethiop’s ear†¦ a snowy dove trooping with crows† (1. 5. 51-55); â€Å"But soft, what light through yonder window breaks? † (2. 2. 2); â€Å"The brightness of her cheek would shame those stars/As daylight doth a lamp† (2. 2. 1-3); and â€Å"her beauty makes/This vault a feasting presence full of light† (5. 2. 85-86) are all praises that Romeo sings of Juliet. To him, she is as brilliant as light, and as different from all other people as white is from black and light is from dark. Juliet says likewise: Romeo â€Å"wilt lie upon the wings of night/Whiter than new snow upon a raven’s back† (3. 2. 19-20). She, too, believes that Romeo is one-of-a-kind and dazzling. Light and dark imagery applies to situations as well. Their love is â€Å"like the lightning† (2. 2. 126), standing out against the background of the hate and violence in the feud. After Romeo and Juliet have consummated their marriage, the daytime and the sadness is brings is the opposite of the happiness of the past night: â€Å"More light and light, more dark and dark our woes† (3. 5. 36). The light and dark imagery of Romeo and Juliet is used for sensory contrasts. Imagery, by sparking the audience’s and readers’ imaginations, is one of the most important literary devices in Romeo and Juliet. The imagery – particularly celestial, religious, avian, and light and dark – enhances the play by swaying the viewers’ moods, taking over as metaphors, and hinting at the plot. Romeo and Juliet’s storyline and language contribute equal impressions on readers and spectators. With language as beautiful as Shakespeare’s, it’s little wonder that Romeo and Juliet is one of the most popular love stories in the world.